The Importance of Communication

The basic building block to all human interaction and relationships is communication. Whether it be verbal or non-verbal. If you aren’t communicating properly or effectively, you may feel that people don’t understand you or you aren’t connecting with others in deep level. This can affect your relationships both personal and at the work place. In fact communication is a lifeline of all human activities and lifeblood of business transaction. No communication, no world. There would be no development in the world without communication.

Language is the medium of communication among human beings. It gives ability to talk, to express our thoughts precisely and convey our ideas to others that communication distinguishes man from the beast. However, more communication will not suffice. As man becomes more and more civilised, he feels an urge to tell others exactly what he feels. But for this urge he would still be talking in signs that can explain roughly what he wants to say. For example, when two people speaking two different languages meet each other they find it extremely uncomfortable to communicate with each other, except by signs which cannot adequately express their communication process may not be complete and perfect unless the language used in precise. It is in this context that the importance of grammar has to be understood.  

One of the aspects of better communications is grammar of the language we use. The value of the grammar is realised especially when a person has to write. Very often in conversational language, grammar is ignored and yet there is not much of a loss. But a person is judged by his writing. Grammar in any language is an important aspect of its literature. Sometimes a man’s standard in life and his ‘level’ in the society are judged by his writings. No writing in any language will command respect without the correct use of grammar. If an adjective in a sentence is wrongly used or another part of speech is used in its place, the meaning is sure to be missed. If great writers of the past are still remembered today after centuries, it is because their writings are founded on grammar.

Learning of grammar is not an easy process. But it becomes easy when pursued regularly, sincerely and with diligence. In some cases, people who speak correctly often write incorrectly. As in the cases of many children who go to some convents where conversational skills are improved, but writing skills are not given the same attention. When grammar is learnt diligently, it gives the learner immense pleasure, or he can profit by good writing. It is also possible that a man or woman can get both pleasure and profit by a good foundation in grammar. When a person speaks well, writes perfectly and is able to convey his thoughts precisely and unambiguously, he is held in great esteem. It is said that in the simple language used by Gandhiji,  is very difficult to substitute any word even by its synonym, for the word chosen by him reflects his exact thought. This is the hall mark of good writing and this cannot be attained without grammar. Thus communication occupies a unique place in the life of human beings.

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WILLIAM WORDSWORTH - THE DAFFODILS - UPON WESTMINSTER BRIDGE

William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth, the great nature poet, was born on 7 April 1770 at Cockermouth in Cumberland. He lost his father and mother at a very early age. Thanks to the generosity of his uncle was given a good education. He was educated at Hawkshead School and St. John’s College, Cambridge, His meeting with Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1795 was turning point in his life, in the sense that he decided to devote his life completely to poetry. Wordsworth and Coleridge together published The Lyrical Ballads in 1798. In 1843 he succeeded Robert Southey as poet Laureate and remained in office till his death on 23 April 1850.

Though Wordsworth has written long poems, he is at his best in the shorter poems like ‘Tintern Abbey’ and ‘Intimations of Immortality’. By writing a number of short poems like ‘The Daffodils’, ‘The Solitary Reaper’ etc.: he has shown in practice that beautiful poems can be written on ordinary subjects and in ordinary language; but they can be made beautiful with the colouring of the poet’s imagination. According to Wordsworth ‘Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility’.

The Daffodils – William Wordsworth

The poem is based on an actual incident in which Wordsworth had actually seen the breathtaking scene of thousands of daffodils tossing their heads in the cool breeze. But it was only after two years that he recollected the scene and wrote this poem. It tells a story, which also is recorded by Dorothy Wordsworth in her journal of Wordsworth’s coming upon thousands of daffodils while walking in the Lake District.

Once, Wordsworth was walking alone through a beautiful landscape. All of a sudden he saw a large number of daffodils by the side of a lake. They were fluttering and dancing in the breeze. They were as numerous as the stars and stretched in a never ending line. It seemed to the poet that he saw at least ten thousand flowers at a glance. The waves of the lake were also dancing, but the daffodils surpassed them. After watching such a fascinating scene a poet like Wordsworth could not but be happy. At that moment he did not realize that the beautiful sight was going to be a source of joy for him in the future also. Afterwards on many an occasion, he tried to recollect the scene. Every time he did it his heart was filled with joy.

Upon Westminster Bridge

This poem was an inspiration by a view of London from Westminster Bridge. It was written on the roof of a coach on September 3, 1802 when Wordsworth was on his way from London to Dover. Wordsworth’s sister who accompanied him writes. “Left London between five and six o’clock in the morning. A beautiful morning. the city, St. Paul’s, the river with its multitude of boats made beautiful sight as we crossed Westminster Bridge, the houses not over hung by their clouds of smoke, and were spread endlessly. Yet the sun shone brightly with such a pure light that there was something like the purity of one of Nature’s own grand spectacles.”  

No other scene is more beautiful than the sight of London in the morning sun. He, who is not experienced by such a majestic and impressive scene, is indeed a dull soul. The city of London has clothed itself in the bright light of the morning as a garment. There are no signs of its noisy people and their bustling activities. Ships, towers, domes, theatres and churches can be clearly seen spreading into the open fields. There is nothing now to hide the view of these wild fields and a clear sky overhead. All these objects look bright and shining because the air is free of smoke. 

The rays of the sun had never shown more beautifully over the valleys, rocks and hills in all those country scenes. The poet though, had visited many scenes earlier. Never before had the poet experienced such intense quietness as at this time.  The river Thames flows freely without being disturbed by the activities of boats, ships and sailors. Addressing God, the poet rejoices that houses and their occupants are now at rest. He feels as though the mighty heart of London city has stopped beating and it is lying calm and still.

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EXPANSION OF AN IDEA / PARAGRAPH WRITING

 Empty vessels make much noise.

When a vessel is filled with some substance it does not make noise, but when a vessel is empty it makes much noise.

People who do not have much worth tend to be boastful. Such people talk much about their supposed merits. But those who are really worthy never indulge in thoughtless propaganda and senseless boasting of their genuine worth. He substitutes it by loose and frivolous talk. Thus, he hides his fit falls and shortcomings under the cloak of much meaningless talk.

 Every Indian knows how once a responsible leader, an honourable neighbour of India threatened to wage war even for thousand years with India. Within a short span, his craze for war was quenched. This is nothing but deceiving one’s owned self, aimed at feeding the people with the promises of bloody wars.  Only cowards pose as heroes. For instance the character of Uttara Kumar in the Epic the Mahabharatha is quite well known.

Every man is the architect of his own fortune.

The statement says that the fortune of a person depends upon his own self. The entire responsibility of building one’s fortune rests upon one’s own quality of endeavours and efforts.

 It is up to everyone either to make or mar one’s own fortune. If a person wastes his energies in futile and unworthy pursuits, never come up in his/her life. Instead, if one realises the value and worth of time of is own fortune and he will become the master his destiny.

George Washington Carver was a Negro slave by birth. He was set free after the civil war (1861-1865). His health was very bad in his childhood. But he worked hard to improve himself. In the course of time he became one of the greatest botanists and an outstanding painter. In a similar way Abraham Lincoln was also one who crafted his own fortune. The saying “from log wood cabin to white house” sums up his life. Born in the most humble family he rose to the highest position in the United States, entirely by self-help.

 Adversity is the touchstone of character.

Adversities are misfortunes and hardships. Life is neither a bed of roses nor a path of thorns but both. Misfortunes, in the life of a person test his character.

The way in which a person overcomes various hurdles and hardships depends upon his character. Character is the inner discipline and integrity of a person. Man is not merely a lump of flesh and a bundle of bones but something more. The character of a person depends upon discipline, determination and sincerity. Man without these heroic virtues is in no way different from an animal. This statement makes it clear that misfortunes and adversities test the character of people.

The greatness of a really great man is revealed especially during stress and storm in his life. A great man never loses the smile on his face and serenity of mind even at times of crises in life. For instance Bala Gangadhara Tilak, never lost his self-discipline and reason even when he was sentenced for six years of imprisonment in Mandalay for no fault of his. During the imprisonment he wrote his famous book, The Gita Rahasya in the same way Mahatma Gandhi. These great souls become greater by enduring all sorrow and suffering with unusual patience and perseverance. They dedicated themselves to higher ends.

The voice of the people is the voice of God.

The statement asserts that the voice of God is heard through the voice of the people. Every creature is created by the holy plan of God. God makes his powers manifest through countless creatures.

Among the creatures man has a unique place for he is endowed with rational faculty. This faculty helps man to realize the destiny and goal of creation. Creation of life has a purpose.  The statement says that there is unity between the word (voice) of god and voice of the people.

Democracy is more a way of living than a type of government. Democratic set up believes in the supremacy of the individual as an indispensable unit of a harmonious whole i.e., of society. God expresses himself through the life and activity of people. Democracy is the art and science of mobilizing various resources of all the sections of people. People are the true representatives of the God on earth.

 Man does not live by bread alone.

This proverb brings out the importance of man’s life. It gives and idea of the high ideals which are a part of man’s life. This maxim says that man requires many things besides food.

 A review of man’s history shows that man has a very restless spirit. He is not easily satisfied. The aim of all animals is to get enough food and produce off springs in order to survive as species. Man who is intellectually superior to all animals finds supreme satisfaction in fine arts.

Man has developed many fine arts. He gets immense pleasure in pursuing these arts; Music, Painting and other fine arts are pursued by many people. Thyagaraja, the South Indian musician is an example of these people. Ajanta and Ellora caves speak of pursuit of fine arts. Religion and philosophy are other fields in which man finds solace and comfort. Man with his superior powers aims at something higher and better. He tries to gain knowledge and satisfy his inner spirit which is restless. So, man does not live by bread alone.

Pride goes before a fall.

Pride is the sin of all seven deadly sins that seals the very soul of man. A proud person is sure to fall in life from the great heights of glory.

Pride is nothing but the pre-dominance of ego in a person. He is blinded by his merits and skills. Such a person is sure to lose his reputation and honour, soon in his life. This aphorism warns people against the danger of infernal fire of pride.

Duryodhana blinded by his physical prowess and the help of Karna, brought destruction and devastation. He was proud of the physical strength at his command. That is why he paid a deaf ear to the good counsels given by Bhishma and Krishna. Modern military dictators are in no way inferior to legendary Duryodhana. For example Hitler and Mussolini, the two evil creeds, Nazism and Fascism based on hatred and violence, owe their existence to them. Both of them in their overwhelming pride brought irreparable damage to mankind. At last they themselves became poor victims to the evil they nourished for years. 

A Prophet is not honoured in his own country.

A prophet is a person with an unusual insight into and understanding of people and problems. He claims that he is chosen by God to carry out a specific mission in life. Sometimes a teacher who propounds a theory and advocates a cause is also regarded as a prophet. However, the History of Mankind reveals that such prophets are neither honoured nor understood by their contemporaries. Sometimes they were condemned to suffer at the stake for their beliefs and behaviour.

One feels very sad to read the lives of those great prophets who were completely ignored and condemned by their own countrymen. The average standard of thought and action of the people is always low. As a result, people in power fail to recognize the divine mission of the prophets. Such prophets came to the earth to give a new direction to the life of the people. But it is the tragedy of mankind not to realize the worth of such great prophets.  

Lord Buddha was an unknown figure in his own country. Jesus Christ the founder of Christianity was crucified for his beliefs and behaviour. In the same manner Gandhiji was also misunderstood by his countrymen. On a rather lower level in India today the worth of our eminent scientists and scholars is not recognized. As a result, they migrate to those lands where their worth is properly recognized and suitably rewarded.

An honest man is the noblest work of God.

Honesty is nothing but sincerity and integrity. The distinction of man lies in the possession of rational faculty and self-awareness. God expresses himself in every inch of creation that too mostly in man. So a person with good character is the best work of God.

A person is considered to be honest and upright when there is the rare unity between his thought, word and deed. This unity gives rare value to his personality lie in terrene suits and nylon stockings that he puts on. But it lies essentially in the inward nature.

The annals of mankind is replete with the stories of the lives of the God men. For example Socrates, Jesus Christ, Prophet Mohammed and Gandhi are few names to mention. All these great souls are honest and noble. That is why even though they are not rightly understood and properly treated in their own day; still their noble character moulds the destiny of millions of people on this earth. Such divine and honest people are really the noblest work of god.

A tree is known by its fruit.

In nature, there are several kinds of trees. Thy bear different kinds of fruits. When we taste the fruit, we know the nature of the tree.

Just as a tree is identified by its fruit in the same way, a person is known by his behaviour. With regard to man what is important is not his beliefs and principles but his behaviour. Thus actions and behaviour clearly throw light upon the inward character of man.

The quality and caliber of a student is known not by the books he purchases or the institution in which he studies but by the nature of his discipline and type of character, he cultivates. In the same manner the friendly nature of a country depends upon its readiness to share the hardships and difficulties of a country towards which it exhibits its friendship. All the promises and professions of friendship must be translated into practice at times of need. 

Life indeed would be dull if there were no difficulties.

Man likes variety at every stage of activity and sphere of endeavor. Difficulties or misfortunes too are essential for they augment the sweetness and bliss in joy and pleasure in life.

Various brain breaking problems and difficulties give man an opportunity to understand life in its entirety. It is impossible to give an all comprehensive definitions of life, for life is so vast and deep. Difficulties and unpleasantness in the life of a person give him an opportunity to realize the real bliss of peace and pleasantness in life.

Difficulties and misfortunes bring out the best in man. Man knows to a great extent what he is, only in periods of sorrow and suffering. To a powerful capitalist rolling in riches, life appears to be dull and tedious if there are no problems to solve and to answer. A Sincere person prays not to have a dry life without problems. Difficulties from the very core of life.

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ODE ON A GRECIAN URN – JOHN KEATS

The ancient Greeks used to cremate the dead and deposit the ashes in an urn which is then buried. An urn was a generally made of marble or of brass and often the surface of such Urn’s are decorated with beautiful scenes and situations. Keats has discovered such an ancient beautiful marble urn in the British Museum and he was inspired to compose this poem.

Keats addresses the Grecian Urn as an ‘unravished bride of quietness and a foster-child of silence and slow time’. Thus Keats conveys to us the idea of the silent repose and the great age of this piece of Greek sculpture. He also calls the Grecian urn a ‘Sylvan historian’ because of the rural and forest scenes are carved on its surface. He poses a series of questions, which are able to give us vivid pictures referring human beings, gods, beautiful valleys, lovers in passionate mood, and flute players playing wild and ecstasy.

The poet goes on to say about the music of the flute-players depicted on the Grecian urn cannot be actually heard but to be imagined. ‘Unheard melodies are sweeter than heard melodies’. These unheard melodies are sweeter than the melodies that we actually heard. Besides the flute players, on the other side of the urn a lover who is trying to kiss his beloved on the urn will always be seen in the same mood of passion. In the real life, love and beauty decline and fade, but the love and beauty depicted on the urn will remain fresh and forever.

In the other side of the urn the season of spring is depicted. In real life, spring is very short, after the season the trees must shed their leaves and become bare. Similarly, in real life a musician will at least feel tired of playing music and will stop for while. The enjoyment of the pleasures of love in real life is followed by disgust and satiety. But the trees depicted on the urn never shed their leaves, the melodist will never stop his tunes and the heart of the lovers will always throb with passion while the beauty of the beloved will never fade.

Then follows another picture of a crowd of people is going to some place of worship. A priest leads a heifer which has been decorated with garlands and that is to be offered as a sacrifice. The worshippers have come from some little town situated close to a river or on a sea-shore or at the foot of a hill on which stands a fortress. The town which is been emptied of its people, will always remain desolate, because the people shown on the urn will always be seen going away to the place of worship but never returning to the town. 

The poet then addresses the urn as ‘Attic shape’, ‘Fair attitude’, and ‘Cold pastoral’. These expressions convey the beauty and the poise of the urn and also refer to the rural scenes depicted on it. The urn awakens overwhelming feelings in the poet’s mind when he thinks of its eternity. The urn, says Keats, will always a friend to man. The generations of men will come and pass, and will perhaps undergo sufferings and sorrows of which we have no notion at present. But the urn will have a valuable message for generations namely, Beauty is Truth and Truth Beauty. The knowledge of this great fact is of supreme importance and this fact represents the essence of wisdom. Having this knowledge, mankind needs no other knowledge.

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London – William Blake

William Blake, as a visionary, shows a great deal of imagination in perceiving what society has in store for its citizens in the future. Like a seer he forewarns the people through his poem ‘London’ about the horror of social injustice, corruption and other social evils that pass through the generations. Through this poem he communicates deep sense of human concern, and his eternal search for positive values and equal justice for all.

At the turn of the nineteenth century, the city of London was known as the hub of the industrial world, a place where industrialization was being felt in all walks of life. But, along the modernization came human exploitation and a steep fall in moral values. The expression ‘chartered street’ in the first line of the poem reminds us The Magna Carta of 1215 (The Chartered Rights) which promises equal rights, equal opportunities for all citizens of England. Despite these Chartered Rights of English people, the Rich class of Englishmen could exploit their fellow citizens. The economic slavery in commercial bound London is obviously seen everywhere.  

The poem ‘London’ expresses the endless human misery in the industrialized London city. There is bondage and weakness. The poet regrets the sad plight of the human beings in the new industrial world. The industrial revolution did not bring in any progress and development in terms of happiness and joy. The consequent urbanization made people selfish, unhappy and miserable. The joy and contentment and the finer community feelings were shattered to dust. Man began to exploit man. The power, position and greed for wealth were made people cruel and unsympathetic towards their fellow citizens. The child labour becomes a regular practice. The orphan children were forced to do risky jobs like sweeping of chimneys. These chimney sweepers are worst affected section of the society. Their suffering was endless and there is no one to sympathize with them. They were made to work for longer hours of hazardous work of cleaning the chimneys.

Every face in the city of London is marked by lack of hope and by misery. Instead of joy, security and hope the common people live in the state of fear and disillusionment. The industrial town London becomes highly commercial and everything had its price, planned according to industrial needs. The tragedy of London was that its people remained separate individuals instead of united. The Church took no cognizance of the chimney sweepers, the miserable plight of the soldiers or the worst sufferings of the prostitutes.

The poem brings home to us the evil effect of urbanization on the lives of the people. The pursuit of the man for wealth and material comforts has only landed him into world happiness. Instead of making man happy and joyous, the industrial society had made him unhappy and miserable. The industrial revolution and the consequent urbanization have made people very selfish and have destroyed the community feelings.

Finally the industrial society gave rise to the social problems such crimes and prostitution. The curse of prostitution led to the degeneration of humanity and disorganization of the society. The innocent children born out of wedlock suffered. The evil of prostitution destroyed the ethical basis and the sanctity of the institution of marriage. It is blister on the human face and reminds us marriage hearse.

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Evolution of Education in India (The Education System in Ancient and Present India)

Introduction

Education is an intellectual property of an individual as well as nation, in other words it is all-round development of human personality.

First of all let’s know what they said about education and its importance:

·         It is obvious that an ignorant and illiterate nation can never make any special progress and must fall back in the race of life.                              

                 ----G.K. Gokhale (Budget Speech 1903).

·    After long thought we came to the conclusion that the salvation of our motherland lay in the education, and only the education, of the people.                                   

         ----Balagangadhar Tilak.

·   Our educational policy must enable everyone who receives an education to develop morally, intellectually and physically and become a worker with both socialist consciousness and culture.     

                ---- Mao Ze-dong.

·         The strength of government lies in the people’s ignorance, and the Government knows this, and will therefore always oppose true enlightenment. It is time we realise that fact. And it is most undesirable to let the Government, while it is spreading darkness, pretended to be busy with enlightenment of the people.      

----Leo Tolstoy.

The Education System in Ancient and Present India – A Bird’s eye view

The entire Educational System in India can be divided into 5 stages for the better understanding of the Evolution of Education India from Ancient period to Modern New Educational Policy.

The 5 stages are …

1.                    The Education system in Ancient India.

2.                    Education in Buddhist Period.

3.                    Education in the Medieval Period.

4.                    Education in British India (18^th to 20^th C.)

5.                    Education in Free India. (After 1947 to New Educational Policy)

Stage – 1

The Education system in Ancient India.

The objectives of education are influenced by the Vedas, the Upanishads, The Puranas and the orthodox and unorthodox schools of philosophy.

 According to Samkhya Yoga, the human personality consists of:

1.        The gross (Physical body)

2.        The subtle body (mind and intellect)

3.        The soul or the Spirit.

4.         

The soul is shrouded by five sheaths. They are called pancha Koshas:

1.       Anandamaya

2.       Vijanana maya

3.       Manomaya

4.       Pranamaya and

5.       Annamaya

According to the Upanishads, the object of education is to provide all-round development of the person by training the five koshas (Sheathes).

The philosophy of education was centered in religion of spiritual values. The doctrine of Dharma was the foundation principle. Our ancients looked upon the country not as a geographical entity but as a cultural unit. Greater emphasis upon duties and obligations and the concept of joint family were their social characteristics.

Main features of educational system of ancient period are:

·         Castes determined professions or crafts.

·         Literature was often coloured by religion.

·         Research on the secret of birth and death and the true purpose of life.

·         Profile of the teacher (Desiko Navalakshanaha)

1.        Suchihi                          (external and internal cleanliness)

2.        Vahaswi                        (Accurate and effective expression and articulation)

3.        Varchaswi                     ( Bright countenance or good personality)

4.        Dhritiman                     ( Brave and imperturbable moral courage)

5.        Smrithiman                   (Good memory)

6.        Kriti                               ( Good and beautiful writing)

7.        Namratha                      ( Humility)

8.        Utsahi                            ( Enthusiasm)

9.        Jijnasi                            (Eagerness to pursue knowledge and wisdom at all times.)

·         Close contact between teacher and pupil.

·         Manu said that there were three types of education.  They are:

1.       Laukika

2.       Vaidika and

3.        Adhyatmika

·         World Out look:

i.                     Mata Bhoomi putrohan Bhoomim. ( We are the sons of mother Earth)

ii.                    Rigveda: Upasarmataram Bhoomim (Dedicate yourself to the service of the world)

iii.                  Kriyanto Viswamarayam  ( Make the whole world noble in action)

  

·         Utilitarian aspect:

The 3^rd mantra of Regveda (Ch.10 Sec. 155) says, “Technical Science is a wonderful thing. It removes poverty and brings in prosperity”.

                O poverty-stricken man!

                Acquire technical knowledge and remove poverty and want.

In technical education there were 18 silpas including Architecture, Smithy, Military Art, Carpentry etc., which were job-oriented courses. There were 64 Arts mentioned by Vatsayana, including Nutrition, Domestic Science, and Fine Arts.

 Stage – 2

Buddhist period – A View.

 Fahien, Huenstang, Itsing and other Chinese travellers wrote about the universities and the education system. Takshasila, Nalanda, Oddantapuri, Vikramasila and Amaravathi were famous Universities of the ancient or Buddhistic period.

There were great Mathematicians and Astronomers like Arya Bhatta (Algebra), Brahmaputra (Mathematics and Astronomy), Bhaskara (Mathematician), Varaha Mihira (Astronomy); Grammarians like Paniani and Patanjili; Philoshpers like Kapila, Sankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva; Physicians and surgeons like Charaka, Susruta Jivaka; Law-makers like Manu and Yajnavalka; Logicians like Jaimini and Gargi; Politico-Economists like Chanakya and Sceintist like Nagarjuna.

Nalanda University.

It was one mile long and one mile wide. Its Central College had 7 halls and 300 rooms, Hostels had single rooms 11’x 10’ with stone benches and niches for books. It had an observatory. It had three library buildings. They are:

1.        Ratna Dadhi                  (A 9 Storied building)

2.        Ratna Sagara and

3.        Ratna Ranjaka.

1,000 persons lived on the campus. There were 1510 faculty members – Teacher pupil ratio was1: 7 and it was co-education.

Main features and components Buddhist and Jain systems of Education:

1.        More democratic and free from any distinction of caste and sex.

2.        The establishment of Viharas where there was community life. It led to institutionalization in course of time.

3.        Intimate relationship between teacher and pupil.

4.        Curriculum had secular aspects; both literary and professional courses were started.

5.        Women were educated in Fine Arts, etc.,

6.       Medicine – Ayurveda – Surgery (Charaka and Susruta) was also taught.

Stage – 3

The Medieval Period – A View.

Education in medieval period was totally influenced by Muslim rulers.

Objects of education were based upon Koran the religious scripture of the Muslims is given importance.

In this period Koran is given great importance to education. Acquisition and extension of Ilm, the Knowledge, helps in the realization of Truth. Ink-pen and paper are the basic implements of Knowledge. According to Prophet Mohammed, education is a must for a Muslim.

There are two kinds of Muslim rulers in implementation of Education.

They are:              

1.        Conservatives – who were indifferent to modern education

2.        Progressives – who were supported reforms and Modern Education.

Some of the landmarks in medieval educational reforms.

1.        In 1192 – Md. Ghory set up muktabs (primary schools) to teach fundamentals of Koran. Seminars were conducted at Ajmer for propagating Islamic culture. Madrasas (High schools or Institution of higher education) attached to Mosques.

2.        During 1290 – 1320 Sultans of Khilji dynasty encouraged History, Philosophy, Poetry and Science.

3.        After Khiljis’ there is slight setback in educational progress till 1500. Afterwards 30 Colleges were established.

4.        Educational institutions were thrown open to Hindus, which results in the rise of Urdu Learning.

Some of the Special Features of Medieval and Mughal Periods.

1.        Variety of educational institutions namely Muktabs, Madarasa, Karkhanas, Dargas etc., are established.

2.        Similarities are also made between Ancient India and Medieval India.

	Ancient	Medieval
a.	Upanayanam	Bismillah (initiation in education when the boy is 4 years, 4months and 4 days only)
b.	Gurudakashina	Presents to owners and foreman of Kharkhanas.
c.	Personal contact between teacher and pupil.	Personal contact between teacher and pupil.

3.        Medium of instruction was in Persian but study of Arabic was compulsory for Muslims.

4.        Science was given importance when compared to philosophy.

5.        State control – the office of the Sadar or Sheikh-ul-islam (minister) had to co-ordinate the standards.

6.        Large estates and endowments to maintain educational institutions controlled by Sheikh-ul-islam. 

7.        Women’s education was confined to literature, culture and Fine Arts.

8.        Examinations -Award of Degrees – Internal Assessment – ‘Fazi’ in Logic: ‘Alim’ in Theology; ‘Qubil’ in Literature was also come into existence.

Stage – 4

Education in British India (18^th to 20^th C.)

1.        East India Company and the missionaries ran schools. The company professed

Religious neutrality as it’s declared policy but secretly favoured Christians.

2.        Macaulay’s Minute (1895) supported English Education and Modern science – He defined Indian Scholar as one who knows “ the physics of Newton, the metaphysics of Locke and the Poetry of Milton” – once for all the controversy between the Oreintalists and anglicists was settled in favour of the latter.

3.        In 1853 education became a state responsibility, Education was allotted money from the State Treasury – The General Committee of public Instruction prepared plan and programme of Action for the whole country.

4.        Education was separated from religion – however Missionaries ran institutions for the neglected classes of society. Indians began to start their own institutions. An expansion of education is witnessed.

5.        During 1900-1920 we find regularization of the process, uniformity – grant-in-aid, qualitative improvement by appointment of commissions and the passing of Acts, for instance;

a.        Indian Universities Act of 1904.

b.       The Government resolution on education Policy  (1913)

c.        The Calcutta University Commission (1917)

Recommended separation of secondary and intermediate education from University education and the use of Indian languages as media/medium but no follow up.

6.        During 1920-1947.

It was a period of increased Indianisation. The IES was discontinued. Provinces got more supervision and control. Government of India Act of 1935 granted provincial autonomy to eleven provinces. Congress came to power in 8 provinces but resigned as protest against World War II.

  

Popular Ministers came to power in 1946 – Independence came in 1947. A few important developments of this period are:

1.        The Sarjent Report on Post-war Educational Reconstitution.

2.        Gandhi’s Basic Education scheme as a system of National Education.

3.        New Universities were established.

4.         P.G. Research and Courses were stared.

5.        Inter-University Board was come into existence.

6.        Removal of illiteracy was stared as a programme.

7.        Education for the physically handicapped.

  

‘The Sarjent Report’ recommended---

i.                     Selective admissions.

ii.                    3-year Degree courses

iii.                  Tutorial System

iv.                  Service conditions of college teachers.

v.                   Teacher – Training.

This Sarjent Plan was prepared by the Central advisory board of Education. This is perhaps the first National Plan. A clearly structured system of education at all levels has been recommended.

Stage – 5

Education in Free India.

1.        Universal elementary education was the first goal. (It is not realised even after 4 decades.

2.        To provide opportunities to the socially deprived sections, Scholarships and economic incentives are given SCs, STs and BCs.

3.        Language Policy – Hindi as official language and English as associate official language – Modern Indian languages encouraged – Medium of instruction in Higher Education in Indian Languages is also approved.

4.        Expansion of higher education – non-formal education – Diversification of courses – Vocationalisation in education is witnessed.

5.        As recommended by the Central advisory Board of education and the committees on Emotional Integration (1953), the new pattern of 10+2+3 has been introduced.

A.            The Radhkrishnan Commission:

On University Education (1948-1949) – the right balance between the body and soul, and the individual and the Society.

Ø  Recommended change in teaching methods,

Ø  Emphasized the quality of education,

Ø  Recommended tutorial system and closer contact teacher and pupil,

Ø  Study of all religions,

Ø  Moral education,

Ø  Regional language as medium of instruction,

Ø  Promotion of research

Ø  Examination reform

Ø  Recommended establishment of University Grants Commission.

B.             The Secondary Education Commission (1952):

With Dr. Lakshmanaswamy Mudaliar as a chairman.

C.             The Kothari Commission of 1946-66:

Recommended the national pattern of education.

The Kothari Commission submitted a comprehensive report on education covering primary, secondary, collegiate and university stages.

Recommended a national objective with 5 points:

1.        Productivity

2.        Social and national integration

3.        Democracy

4.        Modernization and

5.        Promotion of Social, Moral and Spiritual values.

Provided a basis for a national policy on education

ü  Revival of I.E.S

ü  Emphasis on Science Education.

ü  Strengthening of the U.G.C

ü  Need for removal of illiteracy.

ü  National Board of School Education.

ü  Emphasis on Agriculture.

ü  Revised scales for teachers.

ü  Part-time/ correspondence Course/ Open University.

D.             The Sriprakash Committee: On moral Education.

New Policy on Education (1986)

The latest development in education the publication of “challenges of Education, - A Policy Perspective” and the subsequent formulation of the New Education Policy. This document contains “an over view of the status of education and pointers to the direction of future initiatives”. Resources constraints, resistance to institutional change and lack of political will were responsible for our failures in the past. After a national debate, the proposed changes were announced.

Some of the features of the new policy are as follows:

1.        Emphasis on vocational Education, and Education for women

ü  National Integration

ü  Decentralization 

ü  Establishment of Autonomous Colleges and

ü  Autonomous departments in select Universities. 

2.        Science and Technology - Computers.

3.        Management Institutions to provide training.

4.        Emphasis on teacher-competence by establishing Academic Staff Colleges.

5.        Strengthening of UGC for monitoring academic standards.

6.        Non-formal education facilities – Open Universities.

7.        Literary and Adult Education to get top priority attention.

8.        De-linking of degrees from Jobs.

9.        Value – oriented education.

10.     Common core curriculum.

11.     Navodaya schools (village – based quality institutions.)

Acharya Ramamurthy Committee Report.

It is a sort of mid-course review of the New Policy on Education. It is under examination by the Government.

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