GRAMMAR FOR B.A./B.Sc./B.Com. II SEMESTER

GRAMMAR FOR B. A. / B. SC. / B. COM. II SEMESTER

Question forms/interrogatives are two types

1.       Non-descriptive question forms / interrogatives (yes/no type questions)

2.       Descriptive question forms/ interrogatives (wh-questions)

I.                   Non-descriptive question forms / interrogatives

Look at the following examples

v  Is she going home?

v  Are you the students of this college?

v  Do they play cricket well?

v  Does Rama solve this problem?

Observe each interrogative sentence is starting with an auxiliary verb like is / are / Do / does etc.

If any sentence start with an auxiliary verb and ends with question mark (?) such sentences are called non-descriptive question forms.

What are the auxiliary verbs?

They are five types of auxiliary verbs:

1.       ‘Be’ form verbs

‘Be’ form verbs
Present	Past
am is are	was were

2.       Perfect auxiliaries

Perfect auxiliries
Present	Past
Have has	had

3.       Modals

will, shall, can, may, ought

4.       Conditionals

would/ should/could/ might/ must

5.       ‘Do’ Support

‘Do’ Support
Present	Past
do does	did

Now you should do your non-descriptive interrogatives as shown bellow.

Auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb + complementary?

Auxiliary	subject	main verb	complimentary?
Do	they	play	Cricket well?

Change the following sentences into non-descriptive interrogatives:

1.       Rama goes to Bangalore tonight.        Does Rama go to Bangalore tonight?

2.       He has written this letter.                    Has he written this letter?

3.       She can speak Spanish.                       Can she speak Spanish?

4.       They play well.                                   Do they play well?

5.       She reads English.                              Does she read English?          

II.                Descriptive Question forms / interrogatives (wh-questions)

Descriptive interrogatives usually start with ‘wh’ – word.

The structure of these sentences is shown as

What + auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb + complimentary?
Wh-word	Auxiliary verb	Subject	Main verb	Complimentary?
What	are	you	doing	here?

For example:

v  What are you doing here?

v  When did you complete your work?

v  How many students are there in the class?

v  How much water is there in the tank?

  

Wh – word	Use of the word
What	—is used for enquiry of time/name/profession and in general to know something
When	—enquiry of time
Where	—enquiry of place
Why	—enquiry of reason
How	—enquiry of method
Which	—enquiry of specific thing / person / place
Who	—enquiry of person
Whom	—objective form of ‘who’
Whose	—enquiry of ownership / authorization
How many	—enquiry of number
How much	—enquiry of quantity

Write wh – Questions (descriptive interrogatives) for which under lined part of sentence is to be the answer.

1.       Gafur sold the bull in the market.                        What did Gafur sell in the market?

2.       Gafur sold the bull in the market.                        Where did Gafur sell the bull?

3.       Suresh went to USA last month.                         When did Suresh go to USA?

4.       He answers all questions cleverly.                      How does he answer all questions?

5.       There is a little water in the pot.                         How much water is there in the pot?

6.       Our examinations will be held in the month of May. When will our examinations be held?

7.       This is Tagore’s house.                                      Whose house is this?

8.       I like cricket.                                                     Which game do you like?

9.       I go to library for reading books.                         Why do you go to library?

10.   Rama killed Ravana.                                          Who killed Ravana?

11.   He kept his bunch in a table draw.                      Where did he keep his bunch of keys?               

12.   He passed in SSLC examinations with great difficulty. How did he pass in SSLC examination?

13.   Suresh went to US for his higher studies.            Where did Suresh go for his higher studies?

14.   He lives at cantonment in Bellary.                      Where does he live in Bellary?  

15.   He is leaving for Bangalore tonight.                    When is he leaving for Bangalore?

16.   The chief minister inaugurated the newly constructed bridge.

What did the Chef Minister inaugurate?

17.   There is a little water in the bank.                       How much water is there in the tank?

18.   Rama goes to Bangalore tonight.                        When does Rama go to Bangalore?

19.   He solved this problem with a simple mathematical formula. How did he solve this problem?

20.   There are fifty students in the class.                   How many students are there in the class?

 Direct and Indirect speech

Indirect is just summing up the actual speech of somebody

Some of the tips to be followed according to the kinds of sentences while we rewrite the Direct Speech into Indirect Speech

To write Indirect Speech to Direct Speech in case of

v  Statements

If the principal verb is in past tense -----

ü  The statement should be changed into corresponding past tenses.

ü  Inverted quotation marks have to be removed.

ü  Pronouns have to be carefully selected in relation with speaker and listener.

ü  The conjunction ‘that’ may be used or may not be used

ü  Nearest time and place have to be changed into distant time and place as shown in the below table

Changes occur when Direst Speech is written in Indirect Speech
Direct speech	Indirect speech
now	then
here	there
this	that
these	those
today	that day
tomorrow	the next day
yesterday	the previous day
last night /month / week/ year	the previous night / month/week / year
thus / hence	so
Verbs (corresponding past tenses)
Direct speech	Indirect speech
write / writes	wrote
is writing	was writing
wrote	had written
was writing	had been writing
has / have written	had written
has/ have been writing	had been writing
had written	had written
had been writing	had been writing
will write	would write
shall write	should write

 ·         Imperatives

In case of imperatives

ü  The principal verb is to be replaced by requested, begged, implored, ordered, commanded etc., according to the imperative mood.

ü  The verb of imperative sentence is to be changed into infinitive

·         Interrogatives

In case of non-descriptive interrogatives

ü  The principal verb is to be replaced by asked, questioned, inquired etc.,

ü  And add a conjunction ‘if’ or ‘whether’ before rewriting interrogative sentence into a statement

In case of descriptive interrogatives

ü  While writing indirect speech to descriptive interrogatives all the rules of non-descriptive interrogatives apply except ‘if’ and ‘whether’. There is no need of adding ‘if’ or ‘whether’ while rewriting interrogative sentences into statement.

·         Exclamatory sentences

In case of exclamatory sentences

The principal verb is to be replaced by exclaimed, surprised, wondered etc.,

Examples:

1.       My aunt said to me, “I will show the photograph to you tomorrow.” (statement)

·         My aunt said to me that she would show the photograph to me in the next day.

2.       He said, “I have cleaned my room thoroughly.” (statement)

·         He said that he had cleaned his room thoroughly.

3.       The soldier said, “I want to tell what happened in the war.” (statement in past tense)

·         The soldier said that he wanted to tell what had happened in the war.

4.       Her mother said to me, “I know you how you feel.” (statement)

·         Her mother said to me that she knew how I felt.

5.       The driver said to my uncle, “I am ready.”

·         The driver said to my uncle that he was ready.

6.       Shiva said to the maiden, “You have inspired in my heart a sweet tenderness.” (statement in past tense)

·         Shiva said to the maiden that she had inspired in his heart a sweet tenderness.

7.       She said, “Are you going to Bangalore?” (non-descriptive interrogative)

·         She asked whether/if she/he was going to Bangalore.

8.       His mother said, “What are you doing here?” (descriptive interrogative)

·         His mother asked what he was doing there.

9.       The police asked him, “Where are you going now?” (descriptive interrogative)

·         The police enquired him where he was going then.

10.   Rani said, “Please, post this letter.” (imperative –request)

·         Rani requested to post that letter.

Key to change of sentences from Direct to Indirect Speech:

B. A. 2010

1.       He said to his friend, “Let me go home now.”

·         He requested his friend to allow him to go home then.

2.       The old man said, “O God help me in my hour of sorrow.”

·         The old man prayed god to help him in his hour of sorrow.

3.       The student said to the teacher, “Please, lend me your pen for a while.”

·         The student requested his teacher to lend his pen for a while.

4.       I said, “May your mother soon recover.”

·         I consoled him that his mother might recover seen.

B. Sc. 2010

1.       The clerk said, “I am sorry return the passbook immediately. It will be sent to you by post.”

·         The clerk apologized that he could not return the passbook immediately and it would be sent to him by post.

2.       I called my idle brother and said, “You must decide what you want to do. I cannot allow you to waste my hard earned money.”

·         I called my idle brother and warned that he must decide what he wanted to do and I/he could not allow him to waste my/his hard earned money.

3.       She said to me, “What can I do for you dear?”

·         She asked me lovingly/amorously that what she could do for me.

4.       I said to my brother, “Let us go to some hill station for change.’

·         I proposed to my brother to go to some hill station for change.

B. Com. 2010

1.       He said, “I am unwell.”

·         He said that he was unwell.

2.       He said, “I have completed my homework”.

·         He said that he had completed his homework.

3.       Venu said to Gopal, “I am going to my village during holidays.”

·         Venu said to Gopal that he was going to his village during holidays.

4.        He said, “The thief stole my watch.”

·         He said that the thief had stolen his watch.

B. C. A. 2010

1.       He says, “Children like to play.”

·         He says that children like to play.

2.       He said, “Mohan comes to the college daily.”

·         He said that Mohan comes to the daily.

3.       The teacher said, “The earth revolves round the sun.”

·         The teacher said that the earth revolves round the sun.

Modals: (Modal auxiliary verbs)

Modal auxiliary verbs are:

Shall, will, can, may, ought, should, would, could, might, need, dare

v  Modal verbs have no ‘—s’ in the third person singular

·         I am catching the 10.30 train. What time shall I be in Hyderabad? / What time will I be in Hyderabad?

ü  We can use ‘will’ and ‘shall’ to express the idea of future happenings

ü  We can use ‘Shall’ when we make offers, or suggestions, and when we ask for orders or advice.

ü  We can use ‘can’ to express ability of so something.

ü  We can use ‘may’ to express the idea of probability.

ü  We can use ‘should’ and ‘must’ to express the idea conditional or compulsory.

1.       What shall we do?

2.       Shall I carry your bag?

3.       Shall we go out for lunch?

4.       She may know his address.

5.       Can you swim?

6.       You should not do that?

7.       We may go climbing in the Himalayas nest summer.

8.       She may be here tomorrow.

9.       May I put on TV?

10.   You may be right.

11.   She will be here tomorrow.

12.   I may come tomorrow if I have time.

Fill in blanks with suitable modals:

1.       He is over fifty but -------- still read without glasses. (can / will)

2.       Take taxi. You ---------- miss he train. (ought / might)

3.       She --------- not find her purse. (could / shall)

4.       I had no key so I --------- open the door. (may not / cannot)

5.      If you -------- forgive me, I promise never to do it again. (might / will)

6.       --------- I look after your luggage. (shall / would)

7.       Soldiers ---------obey orders without question. (must / can)

8.       India is ready to ------- any foreign attack. (ought / dare)

9.       She -------- sing well. (can / shall)

10.   I wish you ---------- go away. (would / may)

11.  My mother is --------- getting up early in the morning. (used to /dare to)

12.   This ---------- be your book. Your name is written on it. (must / can)

The Theme of the Novel "The Apprentice" - Arun Joshi

THE APPRENTICE – ARUN JOSHI

# Write the theme of the novel ‘The Apprentice’.

Ratan Rathor, the protagonist and also narrator of the story in the novel ‘The Apprentice’, who recounts the story of his own life in an episodic and reflective manner. He is initially an idealist like his father whose martyrdom gave him a strong impression on idealism and moral values but later he sacrificed his idealism and moral values in the face of the harsh, frustrating realities of bourgeois (middle class) existence.

It may be argued that ‘The Apprentice’ is predominantly about money, power, politics and corruption. The novel basically deals with how the New Slavery has come into existence after independence with new masters: politicians, officials (bureaucrats) and the rich.  At the outset the narration of the story in the novel is directly aims at exposing social degradation and political corruption of post-independent India. It is also be argued that the novel deals with the problem of character building, since Ratan Rathor the young idealist authored an essay ‘on the crisis of character’ to his college magazine which won the first prize for the year.   

Ratan Rathor has seen two pictures of India: the colonial India that produced a nation of clerks, the pillars of British Raj, and the post-independent India, which, in spite of fervent patriotism, ancient heritage, and Gandhian moral enthusiasm, is still overwhelmed by the British colonial tradition, which emphasis the spirit of docility and obedience as values that makes the middle-class so blindly follow its masters. The unique class of clerks is ironically portrayed by Joshi in his novel ‘The Apprentice’ as a class of emaciated men whose ambition does not extend beyond the constricting goals of clerkship, career-hunting, matrimonial game-planning and other highly charged ritualistic games involving status and money.

It was in the India of the 1940s and 1950s; Ratan Rathor first finds himself confronting with two worlds: one, the world of his father that is the world of idealism, patriotism, social and moral concern and the other is crippled world of bourgeois filth. No doubt poverty is a fertile soil for breeding crime, but it is seen in both the rich and the bourgeoisie of the pre-independence and the post-independence periods, who will do anything to gratify their indulgent lust for money. Joshi’s astute analysis of crumbling values of the bourgeoisie and its complete absence of ethical values and concerns in the name of aristocracy reveals the nature of the moral and psychological conflict among the people like Rathan Rathor, who has come from bourgeois class of society. Ironically, Ratan Rathor’s mother, a tuberculosis patient, is a staunch realist who knows fully about the practical value of money states categorically that without money life and all its idealism are totally meaningless. Rathor’s mother warned her husband not to give up his Law-practice for the sake of the falsetto idealism of Mahatma Gandhi. Following her husband’s sacrificial death, she is more convinced about the value of money. 

The self-destructive confusion and moral ambivalence of Ratan Rathor, which finally make him succumb to the mounting temptation of accepting tainted money by sacrificing his patriotism and honour, result from the spineless structure of bourgeois morality. By accepting the bribe from Himmat Singh, he has risked the lives of thousands of patriotic soldiers who fought with the enemy with inferior weapons. Ironically, when it comes to rationalization –— one of the last resorts of a criminal like our hero –— Ratan Rathor is frantically obsessed more by his honour than by the severity and magnitude of his crime.  

Ratan Rathor is guilty of accepting a bribe would characterize as compound fraud, the sin against community. His bribery and fraud threatened his honour for which he determined to take revenge from Himmat Singh, and then from the Secretary who hatched a conspiracy of supplying defective weapons to the army and also responsible for the committing suicide of his childhood friend Brigadier. Ratan Rathor did not opt for death like his Brigadier friend for his guilt of accepting bribe but expiate his guilt in more Gandhian way than Vedantic way:

“Each morning, before I go to work, I come here. I sit on the steps of the temple and while they pray I wipe the shoes of the congregation. Then, when they are gone, I stand in the doorway. I never enter the temple. I am not concerned with what goes on in there. I stand at the doorstep and I fold my hands, my hands smelling of leather and I say things. Be good, I tell myself. Be good. Be decent. Be of use. Then, I beg forgiveness. Of a large host: my father, my mother, the brigadier, the unknown dead of the war, of those whom I harmed, with deliberation and with cunning, of all those who have been the victims of my cleverness, those whom I could have helped and did not.

After this I get into my car and go to office. And during the day whenever I find myself getting to be clever, lazy, vain, indifferent, I put up my hands to my face and there is the smell of hundred feet that must at that moment be toiling somewhere and I am put in my place.”

Thus Ratan Rathor’s search for spiritual identity includes his concern for humanity. Ratan Rathor is freed from the fear of a possible judgement of society, but he remains bound to his own moral conscience in a voluntary attempt to redeem himself from the sin he had committed. However in the process of discovery of self there are magical moments when the individual sees congruence between social morality and individual consciousness.

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THE APPRENTICE — ARUN JOSHI

# Write an essay on the character of Ratan Rator, the protagonist of the novel, ‘The Apprentice’

Ratan Rathor, the protagonist, who narrates the story of his life to a N.C.C. cadet who came to New Delhi to participate in the Republic Day parade. Ratan narrates his own story an episode after another episode ranging from his childhood to his apprenticeship and as a shoeshiner on the steps of a temple as a sort of expiation (redemption) for his sins. The novel, ‘The Apprentice’ deals with Ratan Rathor’s adolescent innocence, his manly experience and his saintly expiation.

Ratan Rathor presents before us a background of his childhood life both before and after the death of his father. Ratna has been an eye-witness to the sight of his father lying dead, who was brutally killed by a British Sergeant while he was leading a procession protesting against British Rule in India. Ratan Rathor, with the background of his middle class family, is torn between the world of his father’s idealism and his mother’s pragmatism. On one hand his father, an ardent patriot, gives up his lucrative practice as a lawyer to politics at Gandhi’s call. Up holding moral values, he donates everything to the national cause without thinking of his family’s difficulties. On other hand his mother, who was disillusioned about the sacrifices made by the patriots during the freedom struggle. A woman suffering all the time physically, mentally, and economically may become almost cynical about money as it is the only means needed to make a man’s life happy in this world.

As a student Ratan Rathor also had ideals like his father and hoped that free India will bring new light to the citizens of the Republic. But, after the achievement of Independence all his hopes for better India have shattered.  He thought that the politicians of free India are worse substitutes for the alien Englishmen. This problem becomes so nagging that Ratan Rathor compelled to think that it has simply given us New Slavery: “yes a new slavery with new masters; politicians, officials, the rich, the old and new. Swindlers in fancy cars.”

When Ratan Rathor comes to Delhi, ‘a city of opportunities’, after his graduation in search of a job for his livelihood, he is disillusioned with stark realities of the present system. In his search for employment he realizes that the posts advertised are already filled in some manner. Even his father’s friends could not come to his aid for finding job for him. During his stay in Delhi he gets shelter in a sarai (inn) beside a masque where several others also occupy the same room with him. A stenographer living at the same inn, manages a temporary job for him in a Government office, dealing with war purchases. 

  

Thus Ratan Rathor begins his life as an apprentice clerk. Ratan Rathor keeps his eye upon his career despised by his father as bourgeois filth. He leaves the inn as soon as he gets the job to settle somewhere and tries to keep himself away even from the stenographer who had been instrumental in securing a job for him. He works hard to please his superintendent. In very short time of six months, on the recommendation of the superintendent, he gets confirmation in the service on his assurance that he would marry the superintendent’s niece. Henceforth he never looks back and on the superintendent’s retirement he gets this most coveted post which brings him every comfort in his life. With the accumulation of riches, Ratan rather gets engulfed in the vices associated with wealth such as taste for wine and woman. In Bombay he once gets engrossed in ‘fantasies of pleasure.’

There is nothing unethical about the fact that the son of the freedom fighter runs after a bureaucratic career. But it is highly illegal, unethical and unscrupulous that he should get corrupt and act against the national interest. During the time of the nation’s adversity, he is not only one to gain prosperity by clearing sub-standard war materials supplied by the Sheikh Himmat Singh, being used in Indo-China war without caring for the lives of innocent people. The gravity of the offence committed by Ratan Rathor is surely more intense than the solution of polishing the shoes in front of the temple. Ratan rather forms a view that a successful career cannot be achieved through diligence and sincerity, but be realized through flattery and cunning. So he deceives his very close friend by giving a false statement without admitting his crime. Ultimately, the Brigadier commits suicide. Similarly, Ratan plays havoc with many who are sacrificing their lives for the nation’s cause. Ratan deceives Himmat Singh, a contractor holding him responsible for the supply of defective materials, but the words of Himmat Singh exposing the character of Ratan Rathor are soul-searching when he comments: “You are bogus, Ratan Rathor…. from to bottom. Your work, your religion, your friendship, your honour nothing but a pile of dung”.

* * * * *

    

Polonius’ advice to his son (Hamlet (Act I Scene III) – William Shakespeare

Polonius’ advice to his son (Hamlet (Act I Scene III) – William Shakespeare

This is a well known passage from Shakespeare’s tragic play Hamlet (Act I Scene III). Polonius is one f the characters of the play. He is the King Claudius’s chief counselor and the father of Ophelia and Laertes. Polonius’ son Laertes studies at Sorborne University, Paris. He had come to his native place Elsinore, Denmark to attend the coronation of King Claudius after the death of senior Hamlet.  This passage is full of worldly advice is given by Polonius to his son Laertes at the time of his departure to Paris by ship.

 

In Hamlet, the Scene opens with the conversation between Laertes and Ophelia, Children of Polonius. By watching his children talking to each other, Polonius angrily blames Laertes for the delay and informs him that his ship is waiting for him in the harbor.

According to Polonius, every man should have a very good conduct or character. According to him “if a man’s character is lost, everything is lost in his life”. So, he tells his son that he should have a virtuous character which is praiseworthy in the society. Laertes is advised to be dignified and think twice before he talks or express his thoughts in public. He is guided to keep his personal thoughts to himself. He is also asked to be calm and have patience in the case of wild and unproportioned thought. In other words he should be very careful and conscious in thinking, talking and acting.

Polonius advises his son to be dignified and good with his friends but not to be mean or stubborn. He is cautioned to select his friends after some deliberations. A trustworthy and faithful friend should be shielded with love and affection and he should not let him go. Laertes is also advised not to be very lavish in his habits and should not spend money unnecessarily on new friends. On the whole Polonius advised his son to attract friends only with his virtuous character not with money.

Polonius guides his son not to enter into quarrel for silly reasons. If he once involves himself, he should defined himself totally. Laertes should warn the opponent to be cautious of him. Laertes should listen to the elders and take suggestion from all but should take his own decision. Hereby he says that decision should not make according to the person but persona. Laertes is asked to develop good habits based on his financial status. Since he is the son of a rich person he should dress up very richly and with dignity as our presentation in public often potrays our personality. He should dress like a son of rich person but not in an odd manner as France is a land of culture and history where Laertes lives… 

Polonius’ most famous lines “neither a borrower nor a lender be: for loan oft loses both itself and friend”  is well known aphorism in English language. Friends become foes in the matter of monetary matters. Money related issues often make us to lose our friends. But Polonius at the end of his speech advices Laertes “This above all to true thine own self be true”. “Honesty is the best policy.” One should keep honesty and should be true to his own self. Character is very important in everyone’s life. This policy one must maintain throughout his life. Such a man will win the heart of every one. Finally polonius bids farewell to his son and blesses him. Laertes takes leave along with his father’s advice.

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An Old Man - Rev. Ronald Stuart Thomas

Rev. Ronald Stuart Thomas’ poem ‘An Old Man’ is one of the shortest and beautiful poems of his imagination but it is the best of its kind. His poems are remarkably honest, realistic and sometimes very severe in suggestion. As a parson R. S. Thomas is successful in this poem in bringing out the true difficulties of ‘the old age’ and exerting the public sympathy towards old people.

The poem ‘An Old Man’ deals with the subject of approaching old age and its difficulties. As the body decays and imminent death draws near, the old man falters on the path of life and slowly succumbs to the ravages that life had wrought on him. Metaphorically, the season ‘winter’ is taken to represent the time of ‘old age’ and the poet requests ‘the winter’ to be kind enough towards old men so that the severity of old age and death are allayed. The image of the bridge that winter is asked to build presents the picture of man’s life as a journey across the bridge of death to the world beyond.

The poet asks us with a great concern to look at an old man reverentially who is trying with slow foot on the wet road muffled with smoke. The old age, the last stage of the life, is compared to winter as the last season of the year. The old man is seen in this poem, walking slowly on the dangerous slippery icy roads. The winter time is described as treacherous like the crust of ice on roads, lakes or rivers. The icy roads are slippery and on lakes or rivers the ice may break when stepped on letting the man fall into the icy water below. As a person becomes old, the world becomes a dangerous place for him so he has to tread carefully (live carefully). The tears on his cheeks resembling as the last glitters on the bare branches of a tree whose foliage ravished in the long storm. He asks the winter to build a bridge with its cold hands to walk slowly and confidently across the deep depths like difficulties of his life to meet his Death. The poem concludes with great revelation that all people on this earth are shaped with a hard hammer of ‘Pain’ on the anvil of the ‘Time’ under the Sun subjected to endure the difficulties of old age. 

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening - Robert Frost

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening - Robert Frost



Whose woods these are I think I know.
His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.

My little horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near
Between the woods and frozen lake
The darkest evening of the year.

He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake.
The only other sound's the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.

The woods are lovely, dark and deep.
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep,
And miles to go before I sleep.

Robert Frost, the famous American poet was born on 26 March 1874 in San Francisco. He attended several schools, but never got a degree, though sixteen honorary degrees were conferred on him in subsequent years. He was in turn teacher, cobbler, editor and finally farmer for eleven years. In 1912 he went to England where he met Rupert Brooke. In 1915 he returned to the United States and became Professor of Poetry at Harvard. He received many academic awards of world fame and in the end was made America’s national poet. He died on 29 January 1963.

Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening is one of the most quietly moving of Frost's lyrics. The lyric says William O' Conner "like Milton's sonnet On His Blindness and Mathew Arnold's Dover Beach, seems to have established itself permanently in anthologies and text books of poetry. It is one of Frost's best poems, and we might discover, if we had the means, that it is one of the best known poems of the Twentieth Century".  It was this lyric which touched the heart of Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, one of the greatest men of the world, and devoted servant of humanity.

The poem, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening, is an expression of joy which the felt as stood watching a familiar sight on a winter evening. A commonplace scene of snowfall inspired Robert Frost to write some memorable lines in recent English poetry. It is worth mentioning that the last stanza of this small poem was noted down by Jawaherlal Nehru in his diary only one month before his death.  

         “The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

 But I have promises to keep,

 And miles to go before I sleep,

 And miles to go before I sleep.”  

As he sits in his horse driven carriage gazing into the soft, silent whiteness, he is tempted to say on and on, allowing his mind to lose itself in the charming woods. John Lymen rightly said “His consciousness seems to the verge of freeing itself from ordinary life, as it were about dissolve in the blank but his mind holds back from this. He remembers that his journey has a purpose. He has promises to keep and many miles to go before can yield to the dreamlike release which the woods seem to offer.” This is the core of the poem, a moving personal experience, exquisitely rendered.  The poem is not just a record of something that once happened to the poet; it points outward area of experience. It expresses the conflict, which everyone has felt, between the demands of practical life with its obligations to others.

On His Blindness - John Milton

On His Blindness - John Milton

When I consider how my light is spent

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,

And that one talent, which is death to hide,

Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent

To serve therewith my Maker, and present

My true account, lest He, returning chide,

‘Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?’

I fondly ask: but Patience, to prevent

That murmur, soon replies: – ‘God doth not need

Either man’s work, or His own gifts; who best

Bear His mild yoke, they serve Him best: His state

Is kingly; thousands at His bidding speed,

And post o’er land and ocean without rest:

They also serve who only stand and wait’.

John Milton, the poet who wrote the greatest epic in English, was born on 9 December 1608 in London, educated at St. Paul’s School and Christ’s college, Cambridge. Milton took his B.A. degree in 1629 and M.A. in 1632. He was an exceptional scholar, at ease in English, Hebrew, Latin and Italian. In his youth, His remarkable looks and refined manner led to his being called ‘the lady of Christ’s’. He got involved in the controversies of the time and wrote a number of pamphlets. He defended the execution of Charles I and was appointed Lain Secretary to Oliver Cromwell, a post which he held till the Restoration. After the restoration of monarchy in 1660, Milton retired from politics and devoted himself entirely to poetry. He died on 10 November 1674.

The following are his famous poems: Ode on the Morning of Christ’s Nativity, Comus, Lycidas, Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes.

Notes:

On His Blindness is packed with biblical allusions. In this short poem or just fourteen lines there are not less than five references to scriptural passages. Milton’s familiarity with the Bible caused it to be the main source of inspiration for many of his poems.

talent: Poetic genius.

(There is a reference to the parable given in St.Matthew’s gospel Ch.XXV, verses 14-30)

(lines 3 to 6) The servant of the parable did not make use of the talent (money) given to him by his master and was on that account, scolded by the master. Milton is afraid that he too may be taken to task by his divine Master for not making full use of his inborn or God-given talent for poetry. Instead of devoting his full attention to poetry he was engaged in writing prose pamphlets on controversial subjects.

day labour: reference to the parable of labourers in St.Matthew’s gospel Ch. XX verses 1-15

fondly: foolishly

prevent: anticipate

mild yoke: ‘yoke’ literally means, piece of wood palced across the necks of oxen pulling a cart or plough. Here it means ‘burden of difficulty’ in life. Again there is a reference to St. Matthew, Ch. XI verses 29-30. ‘Learn from me; I am gentle and humble of heart; and you shall find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy and my burden is light’.
thousands: old Testament, Prophecy of Daniel Ch. VII verses 9-11. While giving an account of the vision he had, the prophet speaks of the greatness of God the supreme judge: ‘A thousand thousand they were that waited on his bidding, and for every one of these, a thousand others were standing there before him’.

Post: travel with speed.

Stand and wait: St. Luke Ch. I verses 19. ‘I am Gabriel, that stand in the presence of God; and am sent to speak unto him’.

Summery:

By forty-five Milton was completely blind while yet in the service of Cromwell. As he had not fulfilled his ambition in life, to write a great poem which posterity would not willingly let die, he felt the loss of his eyesight very much and gave expression to his grief on several occasions. ‘On His Blindness’ is the first expression of this intensely felt loss.

Becoming blind at the age of forty-five Milton feels unhappy about the way he has spent that best part of his life. He is especially sorry for having failed to make proper use of his inborn poetic talent. He thinks his conduct is similar to that of the servant who preserved (unused) the money given to him by his master. The servant was scolded by the master for his laziness. Milton is afraid that he too may be taken to task for his failure to serve God my making use of his talent. Patience reminds him that God is not in need of man’s service. Those who endure their small difficulties, without making complaints, are the people who serve God best. God is like a king who has many servants. Some of the servants will be moving about to carry out the king’s orders; but some others will be standing by his side ready to obey him at any moment. Those who stand and wait for orders are also serving the king.

Introduction

‘On His Blindness’ is the most famous of Milton’s sonnets. This is the first expression of the poet’s sorrow over the loss of his eyesight. It was written when he became completely blind at the age of forty-five.

Milton’s feelings of guilt

Be coming blind at an early age, Milton is very unhappy about the fact that he has wasted the best part of his life without producing any creative work of importance. He feels especially sorry for having failed to make proper use of his poetic genius. He thinks his guilt is similar to that of the servant who kept unused the money to him by the master. The master scolded the servant for neglecting to do his duty. The poet is afraid that he too may be taken to task by God for his dereliction of duty. In a bitter mood Milton is inclined to think of God as a hard task master.

His consolation

Soon he overcomes this mood of bitterness and is able to think of God in a more sober way.   God is not in need of man’s services. He is like a king who has many servants at his disposal. Some of the will be moving about to carry out he king’s orders; but some others will be standing by his side, always ready to obey him. Those who stand and wait for orders are also serving the king.

Remarks on the poem

The poem begins in a mood of bitterness, but it ends in a mood of reconciliation and consolation. What really lends beauty to the poem is the frequent reference to some of the beautiful biblical passages. There are not less than five biblical allusions in this small poem of fourteen lines: but the most appropriate one is the reference to the parable of the talent.

Conclusion

Thus, in conclusion, it may be said that the poem reveals the moral earnestness of the poet and his familiarity with Bible.

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